Real Safety AI Foundation / Research

Disability, Accessibility, and Civil Rights

No Place for the Nexus Doctrine: ADA Title III and Public Accommodation After Digital Migration

Publisher: Real Safety AI Foundation

Legal research article.

Written
July 2026
Version
v12
Pages
123
Download PDFPlain language slides (PDF)Export BibTeXExport RIS

Abstract

Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in places of public accommodation. A circuit split has emerged on whether Title III reaches digital services that lack a connection to a physical place. The majority of federal circuits require a “nexus” between a covered business’s digital operations and a brick-and-mortar location. A minority of circuits treat the categories of public accommodations functionally, reaching digital-only services without requiring a physical anchor. This Article argues that the nexus doctrine cannot be reconciled with the statute’s text, purpose, or category structure, and that its application produces actionable screen-out and methods-of-administration violations under Title III’s own regulatory architecture at 28 C.F.R. §36.301(a) and §36.204. It answers the doctrine’s strongest support directly: the physical-place requirement has its only textual home not in the statute but in the Attorney General’s definition at 28 C.F.R. §36.104, a regulation the nexus opinions never invoke and one that, read in full, defines a covered facility to include equipment and personal property and elaborates its categories by function rather than by structure. The Article documents the migration of commerce from physical to digital forms, develops a functional equivalence analysis that substantially narrows the apparent scope of the nexus problem, and demonstrates that the defendants who benefit from the doctrine routinely concede its premise in their own marketing. The Article walks through each of the twelve statutory categories of public accommodations to show how the nexus doctrine fails for the modern equivalent of each. It proposes a functional public accommodation test as the replacement coverage standard, a test that is sense-neutral, text-faithful, and capable of reaching modern commerce without doctrinal contortion. The Article closes with the case of locked-in syndrome, the population for whom every place of public accommodation is inaccessible and for whom digital services are the sole pathway to participation in commerce and culture.

Keywords

  • web accessibility
  • disability civil rights
  • functional public accommodation test
  • functional equivalence
  • circuit split
  • screen-out criteria
  • methods of administration
  • definition of facility
  • locked-in syndrome
  • telemedicine
  • Section 504 Rehabilitation Act
  • artificial intelligence accessibility

Plain language slides

First slide of the plain language summary of No Place for the Nexus Doctrine: ADA Title III and Public Accommodation After Digital MigrationOpen the 79-slide summary (PDF)

Suggested citation

Gilly, Travis. "No Place for the Nexus Doctrine: ADA Title III and Public Accommodation After Digital Migration." Real Safety AI Foundation Legal Research Article, July 2026. https://realsafetyai.org/research/38fy8y/

Other versions

This paper is also posted on SSRN.

SSRN version

References (245)

  1. 21 C.F.R. §1300.04.
  2. 28 C.F.R. §36.104.
  3. 28 C.F.R. §36.202.
  4. 28 C.F.R. §36.203.
  5. 28 C.F.R. §36.204.
  6. 28 C.F.R. §36.301.
  7. 28 C.F.R. §36.303.
  8. 28 C.F.R. §36.304.
  9. 28 C.F.R. §36.307.
  10. 28 C.F.R. pt. 35.
  11. 28 C.F.R. pt. 36, app. A.
  12. 28 C.F.R. pt. 36, app. C.
  13. 28 U.S.C. §1404.
  14. 29 C.F.R. §1630.2.
  15. 29 C.F.R. §531.34.
  16. 29 U.S.C. §203.
  17. 29 U.S.C. §623.
  18. 34 C.F.R. pt. 104.
  19. 34 C.F.R. pt. 300.
  20. 42 U.S.C. §2000e-2.
  21. 45 C.F.R. §84.4.
  22. 45 C.F.R. pt. 160.
  23. 45 C.F.R. pt. 164.
  24. 45 C.F.R. pt. 84.
  25. 47 C.F.R. §79.4.
  26. 75 Fed. Reg. 43460 (July 26, 2010).
  27. 76 Fed. Reg. 16999 (Mar. 25, 2011).
  28. Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences. (2019). 91st Academy Awards Nominations.
  29. Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences. (2020). 92nd Academy Awards Nominations.
  30. Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences. (2021). 93rd Academy Awards Nominations.
  31. Access Living of Metro. Chi. v. Uber Techs., Inc., 958 F.3d 604 (7th Cir. 2020).
  32. Access Now, Inc. v. Blue Apron, LLC, No. 17-cv-116-JL, 2017 WL 5186354 (D.N.H. Nov. 8, 2017).
  33. Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer, 601 U.S. 1 (2023).
  34. ADA Amendments Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-325, 122 Stat. 3553.
  35. AG Order 3702-2016, 81 Fed. Reg. 53240 (Aug. 11, 2016).
  36. Alexander v. Choate, 469 U.S. 287 (1985).
  37. Amazon.com, Inc. (2000). Annual Report (Form 10-K).
  38. American Library Association. (2023). State of America’s Libraries Report 2023.
  39. American Library Association. (2024). The State of America’s Libraries Report 2024.
  40. American Medical Association & Manatt Health. (2023). State Telehealth Policy Trends: 2023 Year in Review.
  41. American Medical Association, Code of Medical Ethics. (n.d.). Ethical Practice in Telemedicine, https://code-medical-ethics.ama-assn.org/ethics-opinions/ethical-practice-telemedicine.
  42. American Medical Association. (2022). AMA Digital Health Research Survey.
  43. American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed. text rev.).
  44. American Society of Transplantation. (2024). ISHLT Consensus Document on the Prevention and Management of Cardiac Allograft Rejection.
  45. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§12101–12213).
  46. Andrews v. Blick Art Materials, LLC, 268 F. Supp. 3d 381 (E.D.N.Y. 2017).
  47. Bagenstos, S. R. (2000). Subordination, Stigma, and “Disability”. Va. L. Rev., 86, 397.
  48. Blanck, P. (2021). On the Importance of the Americans with Disabilities Act at 30. J. Disability Pol’y Stud., 34, 176.
  49. Bolger v. Amazon.com, LLC, 53 Cal. App. 5th 431 (2020).
  50. Bostock v. Clayton County, 590 U.S. 644 (2020).
  51. Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998).
  52. Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae, Magee v. Coca-Cola Refreshments USA, Inc., No. 16-668 (U.S. 2017).
  53. Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code §17200.
  54. Cal. Com. Code §2301.
  55. Calo, R. (2017). Artificial Intelligence Policy: A Primer and Roadmap. U.C. Davis L. Rev., 51, 399.
  56. Carparts Distribution Center, Inc. v. Automotive Wholesaler’s Association of New England, Inc., 37 F.3d 12 (1st Cir. 1994).
  57. Carr, David (2014). Barely Keeping Up in TV’s New Golden Age, N.Y. Times (Mar. 9, 2014), https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/10/business/media/fenced-in-by-televisions-excess-of-excellence.html.
  58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Altered Immunocompetence: General Best Practice Guidelines for Immunization.
  59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Disability Impacts All of Us (last updated July 15,), https://www.cdc.gov/disability-and-health/articles-documents/disability-impacts-all-of-us-infographic.html.
  60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Long COVID Household Pulse Survey Data.
  61. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (2021). Telemedicine Health Care Provider Fact Sheet.
  62. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (2024). Medicare Telehealth Services.
  63. Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, 467 U.S. 837 (1984).
  64. Chime. (n.d.). Disclosures, https://www.chime.com/disclosures/.
  65. Chime. (n.d.). What Is Chime? Is Chime a Bank?, https://www.chime.com/blog/what-is-chime-is-chime-a-bank/.
  66. Civil Rights Act of 1991, Pub. L. No. 102-166, 105 Stat. 1071.
  67. Closed Captioning of Internet Protocol-Delivered Video Programming, Report and Order, 27 FCC Rcd 787 (2012).
  68. Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, Pub. L. No. 117-328, 136 Stat. 4459.
  69. Crawford v. Uber Techs., Inc., No. 3:17-cv-02664 (N.D. Cal. 2018).
  70. Cullen v. Netflix, Inc., 600 F. App’x 508 (9th Cir. 2015).
  71. Cullen v. Netflix, Inc., 880 F. Supp. 2d 1017 (N.D. Cal. 2012).
  72. Davis, H. E., et al. (2023). Long COVID: Major Findings, Mechanisms and Recommendations. Nature Rev. Microbiology, 21, 133.
  73. de la Merced, Michael J. (2009). Circuit City to Liquidate After Sale Efforts Fail, DealBook, N.Y. Times (Jan. 16, 2009), https://archive.nytimes.com/dealbook.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/circuit-city-to-liquidate-after-sale-efforts-fail/.
  74. Discrimination on the Basis of Disability in Health and Human Service Programs or Activities, 89 Fed. Reg. 40066 (May 9, 2024) (codified at 45 C.F.R. pt. 84).
  75. Dobransky, K., & Hargittai, E. (2006). The Disability Divide in Internet Access and Use. Info. Comm. & Soc’y, 9, 313.
  76. Dobransky, K., & Hargittai, E. (2016). Unrealized Potential: Exploring the Digital Disability Divide. Poetics, 58, 18.
  77. Dobransky, K., & Hargittai, E. (2021). Piercing the Pandemic Social Bubble: Disability and Social Media Use About COVID-19. Am. Behav. Scientist, 65, 1698.
  78. Docket, Domino’s Pizza, LLC v. Robles, No. 18-1539 (U.S.).
  79. Doe v. Mutual of Omaha Ins. Co., 179 F.3d 557 (7th Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1106 (2000).
  80. Earll v. eBay, Inc., 599 F. App’x 695 (9th Cir. 2015).
  81. Earll v. eBay, Inc., No. 5:11-CV-00262-JF, 2011 WL 3955485 (N.D. Cal. Sept. 7, 2011).
  82. EEOC v. Res. for Human Dev., Inc., 827 F. Supp. 2d 688 (E.D. La. 2011).
  83. Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act, 15 U.S.C. §§7001–7031.
  84. Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple Inc., 559 F. Supp. 3d 898 (N.D. Cal. 2021), aff’d in part, rev’d in part, 67 F.4th 946 (9th Cir. 2023).
  85. Equal Rights Ctr. v. Uber Techs., Inc., No. 1:17-cv-01272 (D.D.C. 2017).
  86. Erie Ins. Co. v. Amazon.com, Inc., 925 F.3d 135 (4th Cir. 2019).
  87. Extension of Compliance Dates for Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability; Accessibility of Web Information and Services of State and Local Government Entities, 91 Fed. Reg. 20902 (Apr. 20, 2026).
  88. Fabricant, Florence (2020). As Food Deliveries Boom, So Do Ghost Kitchens, N.Y. Times (Sept. 1, 2020), https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/01/dining/ghost-kitchens-delivery-pandemic.html.
  89. Farr, E., Altonji, K. A., & Harvey, R. L. (2021). Locked-In Syndrome: Practical Rehabilitation Management. PM&R, 13, 1418.
  90. FEC v. Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, 454 U.S. 27 (1981).
  91. Fed. R. Evid. 201.
  92. Fed. R. Evid. 801.
  93. Federal Trade Commission. (1983). Policy Statement on Deception.
  94. Federal Trade Commission. (2023). Advertising & Marketing on the Internet: Rules of the Road.
  95. Federal Trade Commission. (2024). FTC Announces Crackdown on Deceptive AI Claims and Schemes , https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/09/ftc-announces-crackdown-deceptive-ai-claims-schemes.
  96. Federation of State Medical Boards. (2014). Model Policy for the Appropriate Use of Telemedicine Technologies in the Practice of Medicine.
  97. Feldblum, C. R. (2000). Definition of Disability Under Federal Anti-Discrimination Law: What Happened? Why? And What Can We Do About It?. Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L., 21, 91.
  98. Feldblum, C. R. (2010). The ADA’s Second Bite at the Apple: The 2008 ADA Amendments Act. U.C. Davis J. Juv. L. & Pol’y, 10, 67.
  99. Ferens v. John Deere Co., 494 U.S. 516 (1990).
  100. First Consumer Fintech in US History Gains Full Regulatory Approval to Become a National Bank, PR Newswire (July 31, 2020), https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/first-consumer-fintech-in-us-history-gains-full-regulatory-approval-to-become-a-national-bank-301104055.html.
  101. Ford v. Schering-Plough Corp., 145 F.3d 601 (3d Cir. 1998), cert. denied, 525 U.S. 1093 (1999).
  102. FTC v. Amazon.com, Inc., No. 2:23-cv-01495 (W.D. Wash. 2023).
  103. Gerritsen v. Warner Bros. Ent. Inc., 112 F. Supp. 3d 1011 (C.D. Cal. 2015).
  104. Gil v. Winn-Dixie Stores, Inc., 257 F. Supp. 3d 1340 (S.D. Fla. 2017).
  105. Gil v. Winn-Dixie Stores, Inc., 993 F.3d 1266 (11th Cir. 2021), vacated as moot, 21 F.4th 775 (11th Cir. 2021).
  106. Goek, S. S. (2024). The State of U.S. Academic Libraries: Findings from the ACRL 2023 Annual Survey (2024), https://www.ala.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/2023%20State%20of%20Academic%20Libraries%20Report.pdf.
  107. Google Debuts 10th US Store in Tough Field for Technology Giants, CoStar (May 12, 2026), https://www.costar.com/article/712768357/google-debuts-10th-us-retail-store-in-tough-field-for-technology-giants.
  108. Google Store Opens in San Diego, Marks 10th Physical Location, Fox 5 San Diego (May 8, 2026), https://fox5sandiego.com/news/local-news/san-diego/google-store-san-diego/.
  109. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971).
  110. H.R. Rep. No. 101-485, pt. 2 (1990).
  111. Hachette Book Grp. v. Internet Archive, 664 F. Supp. 3d 370 (S.D.N.Y. 2023), aff’d, 115 F.4th 163 (2d Cir. 2024).
  112. Hageseth v. Superior Court, 150 Cal. App. 4th 1399 (2007).
  113. Helen Keller National Center Act, 29 U.S.C. §1905.
  114. Helen Keller Services. (n.d.). Helen Keller National Center: National Registry, https://www.helenkeller.org/hknc/national-registry/.
  115. Hook Agency. (2026). What the Amazon’s Slogan Really Means.
  116. House of Cards: Chapter 1 (Netflix Feb. 1, 2013).
  117. Illinois Consumer Fraud and Deceptive Business Practices Act, 815 Ill. Comp. Stat. 505/2.
  118. In re Bed Bath & Beyond Inc., No. 23-13359 (Bankr. D.N.J. 2023).
  119. In re Borders Grp., Inc., No. 11-10614 (Bankr. S.D.N.Y. 2011).
  120. In re Circuit City Stores, Inc., No. 08-35653 (Bankr. E.D. Va. 2008).
  121. In re Facebook, Inc., FTC File No. 092 3184 (2019).
  122. In re Korean Air Lines Disaster of Sept. 1, 1983, 829 F.2d 1171 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
  123. In re Social Media Adolescent Addiction/Personal Injury Products Liability Litigation, MDL No. 3047 (N.D. Cal.).
  124. In re Social Media Cases, JCCP No. 5255 (Cal. Super. Ct., L.A. Cnty.).
  125. In re Toys “R” Us, Inc., No. 17-34665 (Bankr. E.D. Va. 2017).
  126. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. §§1400–1482.
  127. Institute of Medicine. (2015). Beyond Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Redefining an Illness.
  128. Institute of Museum and Library Services. (2023). Public Libraries in the United States Survey: Fiscal Year 2021.
  129. Institute of Museum and Library Services. (2024). Public Libraries Survey: Fiscal Year 2022.
  130. Kaminski, M. E. (2023). Regulating the Risks of AI. B.U. L. Rev., 103, 1347.
  131. Kaminski, M. E., & Jones, M. L. (2024). Constructing AI Speech. Yale L.J. Forum, 133, 1212.
  132. Lazar, J. (2007). Accessibility of Major Internet Sites, A Look at 2003–2007. Trans. on Accessible Computing.
  133. Lazar, J., et al. (2015). Ensuring Digital Accessibility Through Process and Policy.
  134. Lee, P., et al. (2023). Benefits, Limits, and Risks of GPT-4 as an AI Chatbot for Medicine. New Eng. J. Med., 388, 1233.
  135. Letter from Jeff Bezos to Shareholders (1998). (1998). reprinted in Amazon.com, Inc., 1998 Annual Report, https://s2.q4cdn.com/299287126/files/doc_financials/annual/Shareholderletter98.pdf.
  136. Logomak. (2023). From A to Z: The Evolving Narrative of Amazon’s Logo.
  137. Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, 603 U.S. 369 (2024).
  138. Lydiard, R. B. (2006). The Role of Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Patients with Agoraphobia. J. Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 15.
  139. Magee v. Coca-Cola Refreshments USA, Inc., 143 F. Supp. 3d 464 (E.D. La. 2015), aff’d, 833 F.3d 530 (5th Cir. 2016).
  140. Magee v. Coca-Cola Refreshments USA, Inc., 833 F.3d 530 (5th Cir. 2016), cert. denied, 138 S. Ct. 55 (2017).
  141. Maiser, S., Kabir, A., & Sabsevitz, D. S. (2016). Locked-In Syndrome #303. J. Palliative Med., 19, 460.
  142. Marshall v. Sundial Assocs., Ltd., 588 F.2d 120 (5th Cir. 1979).
  143. Martinez v. Cot’n Wash, Inc., 81 Cal. App. 5th 1026 (2022).
  144. Massachusetts v. E*Trade Access, Inc., 464 F. Supp. 2d 52 (D. Mass. 2006).
  145. Mehrotra, A., et al. (2020). The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Outpatient Visits: Practices Are Adapting to the New Normal. Commonwealth Fund (Aug. 13, 2020).
  146. Mejico v. Alba Web Designs, LLC, 515 F. Supp. 3d 424 (W.D. Va. 2021).
  147. Mendez v. Apple Inc., No. 1:18-cv-07550, 2019 WL 2611168 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 28, 2019).
  148. Meta Bets on NYC with Flagship, Retail Dive (Mar. 19, 2026), https://retaildive.com/news/meta-nyc-flagship-store/815198/.
  149. Meyer v. Uber Techs., Inc., 868 F.3d 66 (2d Cir. 2017).
  150. Microsoft Corp. (n.d.). Xbox Series S Specs, Xbox.com, https://www.xbox.com/en-US/consoles/xbox-series-s#specs.
  151. Moody v. NetChoice, LLC, 603 U.S. 707 (2024).
  152. Morgan v. Joint Admin. Bd., 268 F.3d 456 (7th Cir. 2001).
  153. Morriss v. BNSF Ry. Co., 817 F.3d 1104 (8th Cir. 2016).
  154. Murphy v. F.D.I.C., 208 F.3d 959 (11th Cir. 2000).
  155. Murphy v. Spongellé LLC, 716 F. Supp. 3d 358 (W.D. Pa. 2024).
  156. N.Y. Gen. Bus. Law §349.
  157. N.Y. U.C.C. §2-301.
  158. Namisnak v. Uber Techs., Inc., 971 F.3d 1088 (9th Cir. 2020).
  159. Nat’l Ass’n of the Deaf v. Harvard Univ., 377 F. Supp. 3d 49 (D. Mass. 2019).
  160. Nat’l Ass’n of the Deaf v. Netflix, Inc., 869 F. Supp. 2d 196 (D. Mass. 2012).
  161. Nat’l Fed’n of the Blind v. Scribd Inc., 97 F. Supp. 3d 565 (D. Vt. 2015).
  162. Nat’l Fed’n of the Blind v. Target Corp., 452 F. Supp. 2d 946 (N.D. Cal. 2006).
  163. Nat’l Fed’n of the Blind v. Uber Techs., Inc., No. 14-cv-4086 (N.D. Cal. 2016).
  164. National Federation of the Blind. (2024). Braille Monitor (Aug.–Sept. 2024), https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/bm/bm24/bm2408/bm2408.htm.
  165. National Restaurant Association. (2023). Ghost Kitchens: The Evolution of the Restaurant Industry.
  166. National Suicide Hotline Designation Act of 2020, Pub. L. No. 116-172, 134 Stat. 832.
  167. NetChoice, LLC v. Bonta, 113 F.4th 1101 (9th Cir. 2024).
  168. New Hampshire v. Maine, 532 U.S. 742 (2001).
  169. New York State Human Rights Law, N.Y. Exec. Law §296.
  170. Newzoo. (2024). Global Games Market Report 2024.
  171. Niz-Chavez v. Garland, 593 U.S. 155 (2021).
  172. Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability; Accessibility of Web Information and Services of State and Local Government Entities, 89 Fed. Reg. 31320 (Apr. 24, 2024) (codified at 28 C.F.R. pt. 35).
  173. Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability; Notice of Withdrawal of Four Previously Announced Rulemaking Actions, 82 Fed. Reg. 60932 (Dec. 26, 2017).
  174. Olmstead v. L.C. ex rel. Zimring, 527 U.S. 581 (1999).
  175. Online Accessibility Act, H.R. 8478, 116th Cong. (2020).
  176. Orange Is the New Black: I Wasn’t Ready (Netflix July 11, 2013).
  177. Pallozzi v. Allstate Life Ins. Co., 198 F.3d 28 (2d Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 529 U.S. 1110 (2000).
  178. Parker v. Metropolitan Life Ins. Co., 121 F.3d 1006 (6th Cir. 1997) (en banc), cert. denied, 522 U.S. 1084 (1998).
  179. Paul, T. (2022). Comment, Is a Website Subject to Title III of the ADA? Why the Text Applies to Only Websites “Of” a Place of Public Accommodation, 8 J. Prop. L. 177.
  180. Peloton Interactive, Inc. (2019). S-1 Registration Statement.
  181. Peloton Interactive, Inc. (n.d.). About Us, https://www.onepeloton.com/company.
  182. Pennsylvania Dep’t of Corrections v. Yeskey, 524 U.S. 206 (1998).
  183. Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. LTV Corp., 496 U.S. 633 (1990).
  184. Peoples v. Discover Fin. Servs., Inc., 387 F. App’x 179 (3d Cir. 2010).
  185. Petition for Writ of Certiorari, Domino’s Pizza, LLC v. Robles, No. 18-1539 (U.S. June 13, 2019).
  186. PGA Tour, Inc. v. Martin, 532 U.S. 661 (2001).
  187. Public Citizen v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 491 U.S. 440 (1989).
  188. Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992).
  189. Rehabilitation Act §504, 29 U.S.C. §794.
  190. Reid, B. (2020). Internet Architecture and Disability. Ind. L.J., 95, 591.
  191. Reid, B. E. (2014). Third Party Captioning and Copyright, G3ict (Mar. 17, 2014), https://ssrn.com/abstract=2410661.
  192. Restatement (Second) of Torts §§525, 530 (Am. L. Inst. 1977).
  193. Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability §20 (Am. L. Inst. 1998).
  194. Richardson v. Chi. Transit Auth., 926 F.3d 881 (7th Cir. 2019).
  195. Robles v. Domino’s Pizza, LLC, 913 F.3d 898 (9th Cir. 2019), cert. denied, 140 S. Ct. 122 (2019).
  196. Robles v. Domino’s Pizza, LLC, No. CV 16-06599, 2021 WL 2945562 (C.D. Cal. June 23, 2021).
  197. Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-425, 122 Stat. 4820.
  198. S. Rep. No. 101-116 (1989).
  199. S&C Helps Varo Bank Become First Consumer-Focused FinTech Company to Secure Full-Service National Bank Charter, Sullivan & Cromwell LLP (Aug. 18, 2020), https://www.sullcrom.com/About/News-and-Events/Highlights/2020/August/SC-Helps-Varo-Bank-Become-First-ConsumerFocused-FinTech-Company-to-Secure-FullService-National-Bank-Charter.
  200. Scalia, A., & Garner, B. A. (2012). Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts.
  201. Schnetzer, L., McCoy, M. R., & Bergmann, J. (2023). Locked-in Syndrome Revisited. Therapeutic Advances Neurological Disorders, 16, 1.
  202. Settlement Agreement Between the United States and Wells Fargo & Co. (May 31, 2011), https://archive.ada.gov/wells_fargo.
  203. Settlement Agreement. (2021). Rite Aid Corp. , https://www.justice.gov/crt/case/rite-aid-corporation.
  204. Seyfarth Shaw. (2017). Justice Department Says Vending Machines Are Not Places of Public Accommodation, ADA Title III (July 2017), https://www.adatitleiii.com/2017/07/justice-department-says-vending-machines-are-not-places-of-public-accommodation-and-so-much-more/.
  205. Seyfarth Shaw. (2026). DOJ Throws Wrench Into Proposed ADA Website Accessibility Class Settlement, ADA Title III (Feb. 2026), https://www.adatitleiii.com/2026/02/doj-throws-wrench-into-proposed-ada-website-accessibility-class-settlement/.
  206. Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134 (1944).
  207. Smith, É., & Delargy, M. (2005). Locked-in Syndrome. BMJ, 330, 406.
  208. Sony Interactive Entertainment. (n.d.). PlayStation 5 Digital Edition Console, PlayStation Direct, https://direct.playstation.com/en-us/buy-consoles/playstation5-digital-edition-console-825-gb.
  209. South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc., 585 U.S. 162 (2018).
  210. Specht v. Netscape Commc’ns Corp., 306 F.3d 17 (2d Cir. 2002).
  211. Stiles, L., et al. (2022). POTS: The Forgotten Pandemic. Auton. Neurosci., 11, 102.
  212. Stone, B. (2013). The Everything Store: Jeff Bezos and the Age of Amazon.
  213. Sturges v. Crowninshield, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 122 (1819).
  214. Teladoc Health, Inc. (2023). Annual Report 2023 (Form 10-K).
  215. Telemedicine Development Act of 1996, Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code §2290.5.
  216. Temporary Extension of COVID-19 Telemedicine Flexibilities for Prescription of Controlled Medications, 88 Fed. Reg. 30037 (May 10, 2023).
  217. Tennessee v. Lane, 541 U.S. 509 (2004).
  218. Tex. Bus. & Com. Code §2.301.
  219. Twenty-First Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-260, 124 Stat. 2751 (codified at 47 U.S.C. §613).
  220. U.C.C. §2-301 (Am. L. Inst. & Unif. L. Comm’n 1977).
  221. U.C.C. §2-503 (Am. L. Inst. & Unif. L. Comm’n 1977).
  222. U.C.C. §§2-711, 2-712, 2-713 (Am. L. Inst. & Unif. L. Comm’n 1977).
  223. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights. (2023). Guidance on HIPAA & Telehealth.
  224. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. (2020). Medicare Beneficiary Use of Telehealth Visits: Early Data from the Start of the COVID-19 Pandemic.
  225. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. (1994). ADA Title III Technical Assistance Manual (1993 & Supp.).
  226. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. (2022). Guidance on Web Accessibility and the ADA , https://www.ada.gov/resources/web-guidance/.
  227. U.S. Department of Justice. (2022). Settlement Agreement Between the United States of America and Uber Technologies, Inc..
  228. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1995). Compliance Manual.
  229. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2020). What You Should Know About COVID-19 and the ADA, the Rehabilitation Act, and Other EEO Laws.
  230. United States v. Williams, 553 U.S. 285 (2008).
  231. Unruh Civil Rights Act, Cal. Civ. Code §51.
  232. Van Dusen v. Barrack, 376 U.S. 612 (1964).
  233. Varo Is First FinTech to Receive Full-Service Charter from the OCC, Consumer Fin. Monitor (Aug. 7, 2020), https://www.consumerfinancemonitor.com/2020/08/07/varo-is-first-fintech-to-receive-full-service-charter-from-the-occ/.
  234. Vornado Realty Trust. (2026). Meta Establishes New York City Retail Flagship at Vornado Realty Trust’s 697 Fifth Avenue.
  235. Walsh v. Dania, Inc., No. 23-cv-14380, 2024 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 24037 (N.D. Ill. Feb. 12, 2024).
  236. Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, 490 U.S. 642 (1989).
  237. Warren, T. (2020). Microsoft confirms Xbox Series S will arrive on November 10th in new official trailer, The Verge (Sept. 8, 2020), https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/8/21427510/microsoft-xbox-series-x-november-10th-release-date.
  238. Watson v. Fort Worth Bank & Tr., 487 U.S. 977 (1988).
  239. WebAIM. (2024). The WebAIM Million: An Annual Accessibility Analysis of the Top 1,000,000 Home Pages.
  240. Weyer v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp., 198 F.3d 1104 (9th Cir. 2000).
  241. White v. Square, Inc., 7 Cal. 5th 1019 (2019).
  242. World Wide Web Consortium. (2018). Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1, W3C Recommendation , https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG21/.
  243. World Wide Web Consortium. (2023). Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2, W3C Recommendation , https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG22/.
  244. Yates v. United States, 574 U.S. 528 (2015).
  245. Zaid v. Smart Fin. Credit Union, No. H-18-1130, 2019 WL 314732 (S.D. Tex. Jan. 24, 2019).

All research